The compilation below reveals how Muslims scientists were not credited for all their scientific and technical inventions by the West!
Inventions by Muslims
Complied by Khalid Shaukat
Roger Bacon is credited with drawing a flying apparatus as is
Leonardo da Vinci.
Actually Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain invented, constructed, and tested a
flying machine in the 800's A.D. Roger Bacon learned of flying machines
from Arabic references to Ibn Firnas' machine. The latter's invention
antedates Bacon by 500 years and Da Vinci by some 700 years.
It is taught that glass mirrors were first produced in
Venice, the year 1291.
Glass mirrors were actually in use in Islamic Spain as early as the 11th
century. The Venetians learned the art of fine glass production from
Syrian artisans during the 9th and 10th centuries.
It is taught that before the 14th century, the only type of
clock available was the water clock. In 1335, a large mechanical clock
was erected in Milan, Italy and it was claimed as the first mechanical
clock.
However, Spanish Muslim engineers produced both large and small
mechanical clocks that were weight-driven. This knowledge was
transmitted to Europe via Latin translations of Islamic books on
mechanics, which contained designs and illustrations of epi-cyclic and
segmental gears. One such clock included a mercury escapement. Europeans
directly copied the latter type during the 15th century.
In addition, during the 9th century, Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain,
according to Will Durant, invented a watch-like device which kept
accurate time. The Muslims also constructed a variety of highly accurate
astronomical clocks for use in their observatories.
In the 17th century, the pendulum was said to be developed by
Galileo during his teenage years. He noticed a chandelier swaying as it
was being blown by the wind. As a result, he went home and invented the
pendulum.
However, the pendulum was actually discovered by Ibn Yunus al-Masri
during the 10th century. He was the first to study and document a
pendulums oscillatory motion. Muslim physiscists introduced its value
for use in clocks the 15th century.
It is taught that Johannes Gutenburg of Germany invented the
movable type and printing press during the 15th century.
In 1454, Gutenberg did develop the most sophisticated printing press of
the Middle Ages. But a movable brass type was in use in Islamic Spain
100 years prior, which is where the West's first printing devices were
made.
It is taught that Isaac Newton's 17th century study of
lenses, light, and prisms form the foundation of the modern science of
optics.
Actually al-Haythem in the 11th century determined virtually everything
that Newton advanced regarding optics centuries prior and is regarded by
numerous authorities as the "founder of optics." There is little doubt
that Newton was influenced by him. Al-Haytham was the most quoted
physicist of the Middle Ages. His works were utilized and quoted by a
greater number of European scholars during the 16th and 17th centuries
than those of Newton and Galileo combined.
The English scholar Roger Bacon (d. 1292) first mentioned
glass lenses for improving vision. At nearly the same time, eyeglasses
could be found in use both in China and Europe.
Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain invented eyeglasses during the 9th century,
and they were manufactured and sold throughout Spain for over two
centuries. Any mention of eyeglasses by Roger Bacon was simply a
regurgitation of the work of al-Haytham (d. 1039), whose research Bacon
frequently referred to.
Isaac Newton is said to have discovered during the 17th
century that white light consists of various rays of colored light.
This discovery was made in its entirety by al-Haytham (1lth century) and
Kamal ad-Din (14th century). Newton did make original discoveries, but
this was not one of them.
The concept of the finite nature of matter was first
introduced by Antoine Lavoisier during the 18th century. He discovered
that, although matter may change its form or shape, its mass always
remains the same. Thus, for instance, if water is heated to steam, if
salt is dissolved in water, or if a piece of wood is burned to ashes,
the total mass remains unchanged.
The principles of this discovery were elaborated centuries before by
Islamic Persia's great scholar, al-Biruni (d. 1050). Lavoisier was a
disciple of the Muslim chemists and physicists and referred to their
books frequently.
It is taught that the Greeks were the developers of
trigonometry.
Trigonometry remained largely a theoretical science among the Greeks.
Muslim scholars developed it to a level of modern perfection, although
the weight of the credit must be given to al-Battani. The words
describing the basic functions of this science, sine, cosine and
tangent, are all derived from Arabic terms. Thus, original contributions
by the Greeks in trigonometry were minimal.
It is taught that a Dutchman, Simon Stevin, first developed
the use of decimal fractions in mathematics in 1589. He helped advance
the mathematical sciences by replacing the cumbersome fractions, for
instance, 1/2, with decimal fractions, for example, 0.5.
Muslim mathematicians were the first to utilize decimals instead of
fractions on a large scale. Al-Kashi's book, Key to Arithmetic, was
written at the beginning of the 15th century and was the stimulus for
the systematic application of decimals to whole numbers and fractions
thereof. It is highly probable that Stevin imported the idea to Europe
from al-Kashi's work.
The first man to utilize algebraic symbols was the French
mathematician, Francois Vieta. In 1591, he wrote an algebra book
describing equations with letters such as the now familiar x and y's.
Asimov says that this discovery had an impact similar to the progression
from Roman numerals to Arabic numbers.
Muslim mathematicians, the inventors of algebra, introduced the concept
of using letters for unknown variables in equations as early as the 9th
century A.D. Through this system, they solved a variety of complex
equations, including quadratic and cubic equations. They used symbols to
develop and perfect the binomial theorem.
It is taught that the difficult cubic equations (x to the
third power) remained unsolved until the 16th century when Niccolo
Tartaglia, an Italian mathematician, solved them.
Muslim mathematicians solved cubic equations as well as numerous
equations of even higher degrees with ease as early as the 10th century.
The concept that numbers could be less than zero, that is
negative numbers, was unknown until 1545 when Geronimo Cardano
introduced the idea.
Muslim mathematicians introduced negative numbers for use in a variety
of arithmetic functions at least 400 years prior to Cardano.
In 1614, John Napier invented logarithms and logarithmic
tables.
Muslim mathematicians invented logarithms and produced logarithmic
tables several centuries prior. Such tables were common in the Muslim
world as early as the 13th century.
During the 17th century Rene Descartes made the discovery
that algebra could be used to solve geometrical problems. By this, he
greatly advanced the science of geometry.
Mathematicians of the Islamic Empire accomplished precisely this as
early as the 9th century A.D. Thabit bin Qurrah was the first to do so,
and he was followed by Abu'l Wafa, whose 10th century book utilized
algebra to advance geometry into an exact and simplified science.
Isaac Newton, during the 17th century, developed the binomial
theorem, which is a crucial component for the study of algebra.
Hundreds of Muslim mathematicians utilized and perfected the binomial
theorem. They initiated its use for the systematic solution of algebraic
problems during the 10th century (or prior).
No improvement had been made in the astronomy of the ancients
during the Middle Ages regarding the motion of planets until the 13th
century. Then Alphonso the Wise of Castile (Middle Spain) invented the
Aphonsine Tables, which were more accurate than Ptolemy's.
Muslim astronomers made numerous improvements upon Ptolemy's findings as
early as the 9th century. They were the first astronomers to dispute
his archaic ideas. In their critic of the Greeks, they synthesized proof
that the sun is the center of the solar system and that the orbits of
the earth and other planets might be elliptical. They produced hundreds
of highly accurate astronomical tables and star charts. Many of their
calculations are so precise that they are regarded as contemporary. The
Alphonsine Tables are little more than copies of works on astronomy
transmitted to Europe via Islamic Spain, i.e. the Toledo Tables.
Gunpowder was developed in the Western world as a result of
Roger Bacon's work in 1242. The first usage of gunpowder in weapons was
when the Chinese fired it from bamboo shoots in attempt to frighten
Mongol conquerors. They produced it by adding sulfur and charcoal to
saltpeter.
The Chinese developed saltpeter for use in fireworks and knew of no
tactical military use for gunpowder, nor did they invent its formula.
Research by Reinuad and Fave have clearly shown that gunpowder was
formulated initially by Muslim chemists. Further, these historians claim
that the Muslims developed the first firearms. Notably, Muslim armies
used grenades and other weapons in their defense of Algericus against
the Franks during the 14th century. Jean Mathes indicates that the
Muslim rulers had stockpiles of grenades, rifles, crude cannons,
incendiary devices, sulfur bombs and pistols decades before such devices
were used in Europe. The first mention of a cannon was in an Arabic
text around 1300 A.D. Roger Bacon learned of the formula for gunpowder
from Latin translations of Arabic books. He brought forth nothing
original in this regard.
The Chinese who may have been the first to use it for
navigational purposes sometime between 1000 and 1100 A.D invented the
compass. The earliest reference to its use in navigation was by the
Englishman, Alexander Neckam (1157-1217).
Muslim geographers and navigators learned of the magnetic needle,
possibly from the Chinese, and were the first to use magnetic needles in
navigation. They invented the compass and passed the knowledge of its
use in navigation to the West. European navigators relied on Muslim
pilots and their instruments when exploring unknown territories. Gustav
Le Bon claims that the magnetic needle and compass were entirely
invented by the Muslims and that the Chinese had little to do with it.
Neckam, as well as the Chinese, probably learned of it from Muslim
traders. It is noteworthy that the Chinese improved their navigational
expertise after they began interacting with the Muslims during the 8th
century.
The first man to classify the races was the German Johann F.
Blumenbach, who divided mankind into white, yellow, brown, black and red
peoples.
Muslim scholars of the 9th through 14th centuries invented the science
of ethnography. A number of Muslim geographers classified the races,
writing detailed explanations of their unique cultural habits and
physical appearances. They wrote thousands of pages on this subject.
Blumenbach's works were insignificant in comparison.
The science of geography was revived during the 15th, 16th
and 17th centuries when the ancient works of Ptolemy were discovered.
The Crusades and the Portuguese/Spanish expeditions also contributed to
this reawakening. The first scientifically based treatise on geography
were produced during this period by Europe's scholars.
Muslim geographers produced untold volumes of books on the geography of
Africa, Asia, India, China and the Indies during the 8th through 15th
centuries. These writings included the world's first geographical
encyclopedias, almanacs and road maps. Ibn Battutah's 14th century
masterpieces provide a detailed view of the geography of the ancient
world. The Muslim geographers of the 10th through 15th centuries far
exceeded the output by Europeans regarding the geography of these
regions well into the 18th century. The Crusades led to the destruction
of educational institutions, their scholars and books. They brought
nothing substantive regarding geography to the Western world.
It is taught that Robert Boyle in the 17th century originated
the science of chemistry.
A variety of Muslim chemists, including ar-Razi, al-Jabr, al-Biruni and
al-Kindi, performed scientific experiments in chemistry some 700 years
prior to Boyle. Durant writes that the Muslims introduced the
experimental method to this science. Humboldt regards the Muslims as the
founders of chemistry.
It is taught that Leonardo da Vinci (16th century) fathered
the science of geology when he noted that fossils found on mountains
indicated a watery origin of the earth.
Al-Biruni (1lth century) made precisely this observation and added much
to it, including a huge book on geology, hundreds of years before Da
Vinci was born. Ibn Sina noted this as well (see pages 100-101). It is
probable that Da Vinci first learned of this concept from Latin
translations of Islamic books. He added nothing original to their
findings.
The first mention of the geological formation of valleys was
in 1756, when Nicolas Desmarest proposed that they were formed over a
long periods of time by streams.
Ibn Sina and al-Biruni made precisely this discovery during the 11th
century (see pages 102 and 103), fully 700 years prior to Desmarest.
Galileo (17th century) was the world's first great
experimenter.
Al-Biruni (d. 1050) was the world's first great experimenter. He wrote
over 200 books, many of which discuss his precise experiments. His
literary output in the sciences amounts to some 13,000 pages, far
exceeding that written by Galileo or, for that matter, Galileo and
Newton combined.
The Italian Giovanni Morgagni is regarded as the father of
pathology because he was the first to correctly describe the nature of
disease.
Islam's surgeons were the first pathologists. They fully realized the
nature of disease and described a variety of diseases to modern detail.
Ibn Zuhr correctly described the nature of pleurisy, tuberculosis and
pericarditis. Az-Zahrawi accurately documented the pathology of
hydrocephalus (water on the brain) and other congenital diseases. Ibn
al-Quff and Ibn an-Nafs gave perfect descriptions of the diseases of
circulation. Other Muslim surgeons gave the first accurate descriptions
of certain malignancies, including cancer of the stomach, bowel, and
esophagus. These surgeons were the originators of pathology, not
Giovanni Morgagni.
It is taught that Paul Ehrlich (19th century) is the
originator of drug chemotherapy, that is the use of specific drugs to
kill microbes.
Muslim physicians used a variety of specific substances to destroy
microbes. They applied sulfur topically specifically to kill the scabies
mite. Ar-Razi (10th century) used mercurial compounds as topical
antiseptics.
Purified alcohol, made through distillation, was first
produced by Arnau de Villanova, a Spanish alchemist in 1300 A.D.
Numerous Muslim chemists produced medicinal-grade alcohol through
distillation as early as the 10th century and manufactured on a large
scale the first distillation devices for use in chemistry. They used
alcohol as a solvent and antiseptic.
C.W. Long, an American in 1845, conducted the first surgery
performed under inhalation anesthesia.
Six hundred years prior to Long, Islamic Spain's Az-Zahrawi and Ibn
Zuhr, among other Muslim surgeons, performed hundreds of surgeries under
inhalation anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked sponges which
were placed over the face.
During the 16th century Paracelsus invented the use of opium
extracts for anesthesia.
Muslim physicians introduced the anesthetic value of opium derivatives
during the Middle Ages. The Greeks originally used opium as an
anesthetic agent. Paracelus was a student of Ibn Sina's works from which
it is almost assured that he derived this idea.
Humphrey Davy and Horace Wells invented modern anesthesia in
the 19th century.
Modern anesthesia was discovered, mastered, and perfected by Muslim
anesthetists 900 years before the advent of Davy and Wells. They
utilized oral as well as inhalant anesthetics.
The concept of quarantine was first developed in 1403. In
Venice, a law was passed preventing strangers from entering the city
until a certain waiting period had passed. If by then no sign of illness
could be found, they were allowed in.
The concept of quarantine was first introduced in the 7th century A.D.
by the prophet Muhammad (P.B.U.H.), who wisely warned against entering
or leaving a region suffering from plague. As early as the 10th century,
Muslim physicians innovated the use of isolation wards for individuals
suffering with communicable diseases.
The scientific use of antiseptics in surgery was discovered
by the British surgeon Joseph Lister in 1865.
As early as the 10th century, Muslim physicians and surgeons were
applying purified alcohol to wounds as an antiseptic agent. Surgeons in
Islamic Spain utilized special methods for maintaining antisepsis prior
to and during surgery. They also originated specific protocols for
maintaining hygiene during the post-operative period. Their success rate
was so high that dignitaries throughout Europe came to Cordova, Spain,
to be treated at what was comparably the "Mayo Clinic" of the Middle
Ages.
It is taught that In 1545, the scientific use of surgery was
advanced by the French surgeon Ambroise Pare. Prior to him, surgeons
attempted to stop bleeding through the gruesome procedure of searing the
wound with boiling oil. Pare stopped the use of boiling oils and began
ligating arteries. He is considered the "father of rational surgery."
Pare was also one of the first Europeans to condemn such grotesque
"surgical" procedures as trepanning (see reference #6, pg. 110).
Islamic Spain's illustrious surgeon, az-Zahrawi (d. 1013), began
ligating arteries with fine sutures over 500 years prior to Pare. He
perfected the use of Catgut, that is suture made from animal intestines.
Additionally, he instituted the use of cotton plus wax to plug bleeding
wounds. The full details of his works were made available to Europeans
through Latin translations.
Despite this, barbers and herdsmen continued to be the primary
individuals practicing the "art" of surgery for nearly six centuries
after az-Zahrawi's death. Pare himself was a barber, albeit more skilled
and conscientious than the average ones. Included in az-Zahrawi's
legacy are dozens of books. His most famous work is a 30-volume treatise
on medicine and surgery. His books contain sections on preventive
medicine, nutrition, cosmetics, drug therapy, surgical technique,
anesthesia, pre and post-operative care as well as drawings of some 200
surgical devices, many of which he invented. The refined and scholarly
az-Zahrawi must be regarded as the father and founder of rational
surgery, not the uneducated Pare.
William Harvey, during the early 17th century, discovered
that blood circulates. He was the first to correctly describe the
function of the heart, arteries, and veins. Rome's Galen had presented
erroneous ideas regarding the circulatory system, and Harvey was the
first to determine that blood is pumped throughout the body via the
action of the heart and the venous valves. Therefore, he is regarded as
the founder of human physiology.
In the 10th century, Islam's ar-Razi wrote an in-depth treatise on the
venous system, accurately describing the function of the veins and their
valves. Ibn an-Nafs and Ibn al-Quff (13th century) provided full
documentation that the blood circulates and correctly described the
physiology of the heart and the function of its valves 300 years before
Harvey. William Harvey was a graduate of Italy's famous Padua University
at a time when the majority of its curriculum was based upon Ibn Sina's
and ar-Razi's textbooks.
The first pharmacopoeia (book of medicines) was published by a
German scholar in 1542. According to World Book Encyclopedia, the
science of pharmacology was begun in the 1900's as an offshoot of
chemistry due to the analysis of crude plant materials. Chemists, after
isolating the active ingredients from plants, realized their medicinal
value.
According to the eminent scholar of Arab history, Phillip Hitti, the
Muslims, not the Greeks or Europeans, wrote the first "modern"
pharmacopoeia. The science of pharmacology was originated by Muslim
physicians during the 9th century. They developed it into a highly
refined and exact science. Muslim chemists, pharmacists, and physicians
produced thousands of drugs and/or crude herbal extracts one thousand
years prior to the supposed birth of pharmacology. During the 14th
century Ibn Baytar wrote a monumental pharmacopoeia listing some 1400
different drugs. Hundreds of other pharmacopoeias were published during
the Islamic Era. It is likely that the German work is an offshoot of
that by Ibn Baytar, which was widely circulated in Europe.
It is taught that the discovery of the scientific use of
drugs in the treatment of specific diseases was made by Paracelsus, the
Swiss-born physician, during the 16th century. He is also credited with
being the first to use practical experience as a determining factor in
the treatment of patients rather than relying exclusively on the works
of the ancients.
Ar-Razi, Ibn Sina, al-Kindi, Ibn Rushd, az-Zahrawi, Ibn Zuhr, Ibn
Baytar, Ibn al-Jazzar, Ibn Juljul, Ibn al-Quff, Ibn an-Nafs, al-Biruni,
Ibn Sahl and hundreds of other Muslim physicians mastered the science of
drug therapy for the treatment of specific symptoms and diseases. In
fact, this concept was entirely their invention. The word "drug" is
derived from Arabic. Their use of practical experience and careful
observation was extensive.
Muslim physicians were the first to criticize ancient medical theories
and practices. Ar-Razi devoted an entire book as a critique of Galen's
anatomy. The works of Paracelsus are insignificant compared to the vast
volumes of medical writings and original findings accomplished by the
medical giants of Islam.
The first sound approach to the treatment of disease was made
by a German, Johann Weger, in the 1500's.
Harvard's George Sarton says that modern medicine is entirely an Islamic
development while emphasizing that Muslim physicians of the 9th through
12th centuries were precise, scientific, rational, and sound in their
approach. Johann Weger was among thousands of Europeans physicians
during the 15th through 17th centuries that were taught the medicine of
ar-Razi and Ibn Sina. He contributed nothing original.
Medical treatment for the insane was modernized by Philippe
Pinel when in 1793 he operated France's first insane asylum. As early as
the 1lth century, Islamic hospitals maintained special wards for the
insane. They treated them kindly and presumed their disease was real at a
time when the insane were routinely burned alive in Europe as witches
and sorcerers. A curative approach was taken for mental illness and for
the first time in history, the mentally ill were treated with supportive
care, drugs, and psychotherapy. Every major Islamic city maintained an
insane asylum where patients were treated at no charge. In fact, the
Islamic system for the treatment of the insane excels in comparison to
the current model, as it was more humane and was highly effective as
well.
It is taught that kerosene was first produced by an
Englishman, Abraham Gesner in 1853. He distilled it from asphalt. Muslim
chemists produced kerosene as a distillate from petroleum products over
1,000 years prior to Gesner (see Encyclopaedia Britannica under the
heading, Petroleum).
For authors and books mentioned in this article, refer to The Miracle of
Islamic Science and Incredible Islamic Scientists: Incredible Facts
About Incredible Men - 500 Multiple Choice, Short Answers and True-False
Questions, 1992, p. 136. ISBN 0911119485.
| This
is a partial list of some of the leading Muslims. Major Muslim
contributions continued beyond the fifteenth century. Contributions of
more than one hundred other major Muslim personalities can be found in
several famous publications by Western historians. Biographies are available in the Islamic Civilization E-book. |
| Jabir Ibn Haiyan (Geber) |
Chemistry (Father of Chemistry) |
Died 803 C.E. |
| Al-Asmai |
Zoology, Botany, Animal Husbandry. |
740 - 828 |
| Al-Khwarizmi (Algorizm) |
Mathematics, Astronomy, Geography. (Algorithm, Algebra, calculus) |
770 - 840 |
| 'Amr ibn Bahr Al-Jahiz |
Zoology, Arabic Grammar, Rhetoric, Lexicography |
776 - 868 |
| Ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi (Alkindus) |
Philosophy, Physics, Optics, Medicine, Mathematics, Metallurgy. |
800 - 873 |
| Thabit Ibn Qurrah (Thebit) |
Astronomy, Mechanics, Geometry, Anatomy. |
836 - 901 |
| 'Abbas Ibn Firnas |
Mechanics of Flight, Planetarium, Artificial Crystals. |
Died 888 |
| Ali Ibn Rabban Al-Tabari |
Medicine, Mathematics, Caligraphy, Literature. |
838 - 870 |
| Al-Battani (Albategnius) |
Astronomy, mathematics, Trigonometry. |
858 - 929 |
| Al-Farghani (Al-Fraganus) |
Astronomy, Civil Engineering. |
C. 860 |
| Al-Razi (Rhazes) |
Medicine, Ophthalmology, Smallpox, Chemistry, Astronomy. |
864 - 930 |
| Al-Farabi (Al-Pharabius) |
Sociology, Logic, Philosophy, Political Science, Music. |
870 - 950 |
| Abul Hasan Ali Al-Masu'di |
Geography, History. |
Died 957 |
| Al-Sufi (Azophi) |
Astronomy |
903 - 986 |
| Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahravi (Albucasis) |
Surgery, Medicine. (Father of Modern Surgery) |
936 - 1013 |
| Muhammad Al-Buzjani |
Mathematics, Astronomy, Geometry, Trigonometry. |
940 - 997 |
| Ibn Al-Haitham (Alhazen) |
Physics, Optics, Mathematics. |
965 - 1040 |
| Al-Mawardi (Alboacen) |
Political Science, Sociology, Jurisprudence, Ethics. |
972 - 1058 |
| Abu Raihan Al-Biruni |
Astronomy, Mathematics. (Determined Earth's Circumference) |
973-1048 |
| Ibn Sina (Avicenna) |
Medicine, Philosophy, Mathematics, Astronomy. |
981 - 1037 |
| Al-Zarqali (Arzachel) |
Astronomy (Invented Astrolabe). |
1028 - 1087 |
| Omar Al-Khayyam |
Mathematics, Poetry. |
1044 - 1123 |
| Al-Ghazali (Algazel) |
Sociology, Theology, Philosophy. |
1058 - 1111 |
| Fall
of Muslim Toledo (1085), Corsica and Malta (1090), Provence (1050),
Sicily (1091) and Jerusalem (1099). Several Crusades. First wave of
devastation of Muslim resources, lives, properties, institutions, and
infrastructure over a period of one hundred years. Refer to Muslim History. Translators of Scientific Knowledge in the Middle Ages |
| Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Yahya (Ibn Bajjah) |
Philosophy, Medicine, Mathematics, Astronomy, Poetry, Music. |
1106 - 1138 |
| Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) |
Surgery, Medicine. |
1091 - 1161 |
| Al-Idrisi (Dreses) |
Geography (World Map, First Globe). |
1099 - 1166 |
| Ibn Tufayl, Abdubacer |
Philosophy, Medicine, Poetry. |
1110 - 1185 |
| Ibn Rushd (Averroes) |
Philosophy, Law, Medicine, Astronomy, Theology. |
1128 - 1198 |
| Al-Bitruji (Alpetragius) |
Astronomy |
Died 1204 |
| Second
wave of devastation of Muslim resources, lives, properties,
institutions, and infrastructure over a period of one hundred and twelve
years. Crusader invasions (1217-1291) and Mongol invasions (1219-1329).
Crusaders active throughout the Mediterranean from Jerusalem and west
to Muslim Spain. Fall of Muslim Cordoba (1236), Valencia (1238) and
Seville (1248). Mongols devastation from the eastern most Muslim
frontier, Central and Western Asia, India, Persia to Arab heartland.
Fall of Baghdad (1258) and the end of Abbasid Caliphate. Two million
Muslims massacred in Baghdad. Major scientific institutions,
laboratories, and infrastructure destroyed in leading Muslim centers of
civilization. Refer to "A Chronology of Muslim History Parts III, IV." |
|
Ibn Al-Baitar |
Pharmacy, Botany |
Died 1248 |
| Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi |
Astronomy, Non-Euclidean Geometry. |
1201 - 1274 |
| Jalal Al-Din Rumi |
Sociology |
1207 - 1273 |
| Ibn Al-Nafis Damishqui |
Anatomy |
1213 - 1288 |
| Al-Fida (Abdulfeda) |
Astronomy, Geography, Histrory. |
1273 - 1331 |
| Muhammad Ibn Abdullah (Ibn Battuta) |
World Traveler. 75,000 mile voyage from Morocco to China and back. |
1304 - 1369 |
| Ibn Khaldun |
Sociology, Philosophy of History, Political Science. |
1332 - 1395 |
| Ulugh Beg |
Astronomy |
1393 - 1449 |
| Third
wave of devastation of Muslim resources, lives, properties,
institutions, and infrastructure. End of Muslim rule in Spain (1492).
More than one million volumes of Muslim works on science, arts,
philosophy and culture was burnt in the public square of Vivarrambla in
Granada. Colonization began in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Refer to
"A Chronology of Muslim History Parts IV, V (e.g., 1455, 1494, 1500, 1510, 1524, and 1538)" |
|
| Two
hundred years before a comparable development elsewhere, Turkish
scientist Hazarfen Ahmet Celebi took off from Galata tower and flew over
the Bosphorus. Logari Hasan Celebi, another member of the Celebi
family, sent the first manned rocket, using 150 okka (about 300 pounds)
of gunpowder as the firing fuel. |
|
Tipu, Sultan of Mysore [1783-1799] in the south of India, was the
innovator of the world's first war rocket. Two of his rockets, captured
by the British at Srirangapatana, are displayed in the Woolwich Museum
Artillery in London. The rocket motor casing was made of steel with
multiple nozzles. The rocket, 50mm in diameter and 250mm long, had a
range performance of 900 meters to 1.5 km. |
The dates in the
table are converted from the Islamic calendar (A.H.) which begins with
Hejira, the migration of Prophet Muhammad (s) from Makkah to Medinah.
The calendar is based on lunar monthly cycles. 1 A.H. = 622 C.E.
Source: http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/
