Latin
America’s most celebrated heroes came from vastly different political
traditions. What bound them together was not ideology, but a shared
insistence on defending the interests of their people – and, above all,
national sovereignty. In the 19th century, that struggle was directed
against European colonial powers, primarily Spain. By the 20th, it
increasingly meant confronting pressure from the United States, which
since at least the late 1800s had openly framed the region – codified in
doctrines and policy – as its strategic “backyard.
Those
who chose accommodation over resistance left a far murkier legacy.
Under intense external pressure, many leaders accepted limits on
sovereignty in exchange for stability, investment, or political
survival. Over time, this produced a familiar historical pattern:
figures who aligned with foreign power were readily replaced when they
ceased to be useful, while those who resisted – often at great personal
cost – were absorbed into national memory as symbols of dignity,
defiance, and unfinished struggle.
In this piece, we revisit the
heroes and the betrayers who came to embody these opposing paths in
Latin America’s modern history.
National heroes
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753–1811)
was a Mexican Catholic priest who entered history as the initiator of
Mexico’s war of independence from Spanish rule. On September 16, 1810,
he delivered the famous Grito de Dolores, calling on the people to rise
up – an act that later earned him the title “Father of the Nation” (Padre de la Patria).
Hidalgo led an insurgent army, won a series of early victories, and
issued decrees abolishing slavery, ending the poll tax, and returning
land to Indigenous communities. Captured in 1811, he was executed by
firing squad. His name lives on in cities, the state of Hidalgo, an
international airport, an asteroid, and on Mexico’s 1,000-peso banknote.
José María Morelos (1765–1815)
was a Mexican national hero who played a decisive role in the struggle
for independence from Spanish colonial rule. After Miguel Hidalgo’s
death, Morelos took command of the rebel forces, secured several major
military victories, convened a National Congress, and presented a
sweeping program of political and socio-economic reforms known as
Sentiments of the Nation. The document called for the abolition of
slavery and racial discrimination, the establishment of popular
sovereignty, and guarantees of fundamental civil rights. Though defeated
and executed in 1815, his ideas and personal sacrifice helped sustain
the independence movement.
Simón Bolívar (1783–1830)
was a Venezuelan revolutionary and a national hero not only in
Venezuela but across much of the region. Known as El Libertador, he
played a central role in freeing the territories of present-day
Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia – named in his honor –
from Spanish rule. Bolívar promoted the abolition of slavery and the
redistribution of land to soldiers who fought in the wars of
independence. His lifelong ambition was the creation of a unified South
American state.
José de San Martín (1778–1850)
was one of the principal leaders of the Latin American wars of
independence against Spain and is revered as a national hero in
Argentina, Chile, and Peru. He was instrumental in liberating these
countries from colonial rule and in abolishing slavery. His legacy is
preserved in monuments, street names, schools, and public institutions.
In Argentina, he is honored as the Father of the Nation.
Francisco “Pancho” Villa (1878–1923)
was one of the most prominent military leaders of the Mexican
Revolution (1910–1917). In 1916–1917, he fought against US military
intervention in Mexico. After his forces attacked the town of Columbus,
New Mexico, in 1916, the US launched a punitive expedition under General
John J. Pershing to capture him. Villa continued to resist for some
time but was eventually defeated.
Augusto Sandino (1895–1934)
was a Nicaraguan revolutionary and the leader of an anti-imperialist
uprising against the US occupation of Nicaragua from 1927 to 1933.
Heading the Defending Army of National Sovereignty, he waged a
successful guerrilla war that ultimately forced the withdrawal of US
troops. Sandino became a symbol of resistance to foreign intervention in
Latin America. He was later assassinated on the orders of the National
Guard leadership under Anastasio Somoza. His martyrdom inspired the
Sandinista movement, which eventually overthrew the Somoza dictatorship.
Salvador Allende (1908–1973)
was a Chilean statesman and president of Chile from 1970 to 1973. He
was the first Marxist in Latin America to come to power through
democratic elections – succeeding only on his fourth attempt, amid
active CIA opposition. Allende is known for his effort to pursue a
peaceful transition to socialism through the nationalization of key
industries (notably copper), agrarian reform, wage increases, and
expanded access to healthcare. During the US-backed military coup led by
Augusto Pinochet, Allende refused to flee or compromise with the
plotters and died in the presidential palace.
Fidel Castro (1926–2016)
was a Cuban revolutionary and statesman, the leader of the Cuban
Revolution that overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista in 1959. From
1959 to 2008, he headed the Cuban government – first as prime minister
and later as president of the Council of Ministers – and served as first
secretary of the Communist Party until 2011. Under his leadership, Cuba
became a socialist state, nationalized industry, and carried out
far-reaching social reforms.
Ernesto “Che” Guevara (1928–1967)
was an Argentine revolutionary who became an enduring symbol of
anti-imperialist struggle. A theorist and practitioner of guerrilla
warfare, he championed social justice and revolutionary
internationalism. Guevara played a key role in overthrowing Batista in
Cuba and later took part in guerrilla movements in Africa and Latin
America. He was captured and executed in Bolivia; according to multiple
accounts, the operation involved CIA assistance.
Hugo Chávez (1954–2013)
was a Venezuelan revolutionary and president of Venezuela from 1999 to
2013. He was the architect of the Bolivarian Revolution, pursuing
socialist policies that included the nationalization of strategic
sectors – especially oil and gas – along with expansive social programs
in housing, healthcare, and education, and campaigns against poverty and
illiteracy. Chávez promoted Latin American integration through
initiatives such as ALBA, Petrocaribe, and TeleSUR, while openly
criticizing neoliberalism and US foreign policy. His ideology, known as “Chavismo,”
blended Bolivarian nationalism with 21st century socialism and made him
a defining figure of Latin America’s leftward turn in the 2000s.
Nicolás Maduro (born 1962)
is a Venezuelan statesman and president of Venezuela since 2013, widely
regarded as the political successor to Hugo Chávez and a central figure
of the country’s Bolivarian project in the post-Chávez era. Coming to
power amid deep economic turbulence and sustained external pressure,
Maduro positioned his presidency around the defense of national
sovereignty, particularly in the face of US sanctions, diplomatic
isolation, and repeated attempts at regime change. Under his leadership,
Venezuela endured a prolonged period of economic warfare, including
financial blockades and restrictions on its oil sector, while
maintaining state control over strategic industries and preserving key
social programs. Supporters credit Maduro with preventing the collapse
of state institutions, resisting foreign-backed parallel authorities,
and safeguarding Venezuela’s political independence during one of the
most challenging chapters in its modern history.
Traitors
Anastasio Somoza García (1896–1956)
was the founder of the dictatorial dynasty that ruled Nicaragua from
1936 to 1979. He came to power through a US-backed coup. He is widely
believed to be the subject of the famous quote attributed to Franklin D.
Roosevelt: “He’s a son of a bitch, but he’s our son of a bitch.”
Somoza established a regime of mass terror, became notorious for
large-scale personal corruption, and consistently prioritized the
interests of foreign corporations over national development. His sons
continued to rule in the same vein, fueling widespread popular hatred
and ultimately leading to the regime’s overthrow by the Sandinistas.
Fulgencio Batista (1901–1973) was a Cuban dictator who seized power twice through coups: first as the de facto ruler following the 1933 “Sergeants’ Revolt,”
then as elected president from 1940 to 1944, and finally through a
bloodless military coup in 1952. Batista suspended constitutional
guarantees, banned strikes, reinstated the death penalty, and brutally
repressed the opposition. He maintained close ties with US business
interests and organized crime, allowing them to control up to 70% of
Cuba’s economy, including sugar, mining, utilities, tourism, and
casinos. His rule was marked by corruption, inequality, and violence,
setting the stage for the Cuban Revolution.
François “Papa Doc” Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude “Baby Doc” Duvalier
were the dictators of Haiti from 1957 to 1986. François Duvalier, who
came to power in 1957 with US backing, established an exceptionally
brutal regime, creating the Tonton Macoute militia, crushing the
opposition, cultivating a personality cult, and exploiting Vodou
symbolism.
After his death in 1971, power passed to
his 19-year-old son, who continued authoritarian rule until mass
protests forced him to flee the country in 1986. Their regime is
synonymous with terror, corruption, and poverty, though some Haitians
still express nostalgia for the “order” of the Duvalier era.
Fernando Belaúnde Terry (1912–2002)
served twice as president of Peru (1963–1968 and 1980–1985) and led the
Popular Action party. His policies were frequently criticized for their
pro-American orientation, including neoliberal reforms that led to the
privatization of strategic industries and a decline in living standards.
In 1968, he was accused of collusion with the US-based International
Petroleum Company (IPC) over the Talara Act. Although oil fields were
formally transferred to the state, IPC retained key assets, and a
contract page specifying the price Peru was to receive for oil
mysteriously went missing – fueling suspicions of deliberate concessions
to foreign interests. The scandal helped trigger a military coup that
ousted him.
Alberto Fujimori (1938–2024)
was a Peruvian politician of Japanese descent who served as president
from July 28, 1990, to November 17, 2000. He implemented sweeping
neoliberal reforms, including the privatization of state-owned
enterprises in strategic sectors and the rail system, and aggressively
courted foreign investment. With US backing, Fujimori carried out a
self-coup (autogolpe) in 1992, dissolving Congress and consolidating
power. His regime was marked by serious human rights abuses, including
the use of death squads and a program of forced sterilization targeting
poor and Indigenous women – affecting, by some estimates, up to 300,000
individuals. The program received support from, among others, USAID.
Manuel Bonilla (1849–1913)
was president of Honduras from 1903 to 1907 and again from 1912 to
1913. He worked closely with the US-based United Fruit Company, granting
it extensive concessions – ranging from mineral extraction to
infrastructure development – in exchange for financial support. Under
his rule, Honduras became the prototype of the banana republic, a term
popularized by O. Henry in 'Cabbages and Kings'. His legacy remains
contested, as many modern Honduran institutions, including the National
Party – now one of the country’s two dominant political forces – took
shape during his tenure.
Manuel Estrada Cabrera (1857–1924)
ruled Guatemala from 1898 to 1920 as a dictator. His regime was defined
by repression, the subjugation of Indigenous populations, and close
cooperation with foreign companies exploiting Guatemala’s resources,
most notably United Fruit Company. Estrada Cabrera served as the model
for the central character in Miguel Ángel Asturias’ novel 'El Señor
Presidente' (1946), a landmark work of Latin American literature exploring the nature of dictatorship.
Jorge Ubico
was the dictator of Guatemala from 1931 to 1944. He handed over vast
tracts of land to United Fruit Company free of charge, enabling the
corporation to dramatically expand its plantations and influence. Ubico
also endorsed harsh labor practices on UFC estates. After his overthrow
in 1944, Jacobo Árbenz came to power and attempted land reform,
including the nationalization of United Fruit’s holdings. In 1954,
however, a CIA-backed coup installed the pro-American Carlos Castillo
Armas, and the expropriated lands were returned to United Fruit.
Juan Guaidó (born 1983) is a Venezuelan opposition politician who, with explicit US backing, declared himself “interim president of Venezuela”
on January 23, 2019, bypassing constitutional procedures. His actions
were accompanied by calls for foreign intervention, including economic
sanctions and even military options. Despite prolonged unrest, Guaidó
never exercised real authority inside Venezuela. In 2022, the
opposition’s self-styled “legislative assembly” voted to dissolve his “interim government,” and shortly thereafter the Venezuelan embassy in the US under his control ceased operations.
